The Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv ) - 948 Words

The Uses of Blood by the HIV Virus Blood-borne diseases have contributed greatly to poor health outcomes among individuals and communities. Though blood fulfills various functions to ensure our survival, it can also act as the mechanism through which we become diseased. Understanding the characteristics of such infectious diseases is essential to preventing further cases. In this paper I will discuss how the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) uses blood to cause illness within the infected individual and transmit to others. In particular, this paper will assess the implications of HIV/AIDS for individuals, between people, and in societies. The outbreak of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was first recognized in the 1980s in the†¦show more content†¦This event was important in demonstrating the ability of HIV to spread through blood, along with other bodily fluids. One way that blood is used by HIV/AIDS is to cause illness within those who become infected. While pathogens may be spread through various routes, the HIV virus is commonly transmitted by blood and other bodily fluids because it does not survive for a long duration outside of the body (Avert, 2014b). Though previous studies have reported the potential of HIV to thrive in an external environment for several weeks, the survival of the virus is dependent on several factors including quantity of the fluid, virus concentration, and the surrounding temperature and acidity (Aidsmap, 2015). As such, HIV is transmitted best when it comes into direct contact with people. The optimal route of exposure is through the bloodstream or mucous membranes of the body (AIDS.gov, 2014a). Pathways of the blood allow the HIV virus to contact and destroy immune cells. Individuals may feel flu-like symptoms a few weeks after being infected. However, many are unaware of their infection, though contagious, unt il later stages of the disease (World Health Organization [WHO], 2014). The destructive actions of HIV lead to increased susceptibility to other infections and the development of certain cancers, which characterizes the later stage of HIV known as AIDS (WHO, 2014). Blood has shown to greatly contribute to the ability of HIV to thrive in

The Spotted Owl, the Forests Products Industry, and the...

The Spotted Owl, the Forests Products Industry, and the Public Policy I. Introduction A. The Spotted Owl B. Logging Industry II. Conflicts of Interest A. Economic needs 1.Unemployment B. Preservation Needs 1.Endangered Species Act 2.Special Interest Groups III. Resolutions A. Possible Solutions B. Eventual Outcome 1. Loss of Interest a. Other Species Demand Attention 2. Migration 3. Repopulation Abstract The spotted owl was seen as a symbol of all things environmental during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The logging industry was well on its way to destroying most of the old growth forests of the Pacific Northwest. Environmentalists swarmed the area, sabotaging logging efforts and calling†¦show more content†¦Many people have wondered why this insignificant owl gets more press than the decimation of salmon streams nationwide, when it would have no economic impact on our society as a whole. The logging industry has made millions of dollars from the harvesting of old growth lumber over the past several decades. Recently, they have become more responsible about clear-cut logging. Harvested forests are often replanted to provide for future wildlife habitat and logging efforts. However, this doesnt help the spotted owl. It needs old growth forests with their tangle of massive trees and thick dense brush. The logging industry is threatened by this small owl. Thousands of jobs have been lost. Families are starving. Lumber prices have skyrocketed. So this sets up a struggle. Loggers need the lumber for economic prosperity. Environmentalists want to protect this owl. How will both parties win? Can both parties win? There are many issues that arise out of this conflict. The public needs cost efficient lumber. The loggers need their jobs. The spotted owl needs a home. One of the largest concerns, dealing with the spotted owl / forest industry debate, is the loss of jobs. There were 21,000 jobs lost during the time that this debate took place (Ross, 1999). The amount of job losses in the logging and milling industry at this time were not solely attributed to the spotted owl controversy. The downward trend in the timber harvest

Wealth As Determinant Of Health Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(118) " as it relates to healthcare and healthcare quality disparities, the studies found that inequality in quality exists\." There is a phenomenon in the United States that illustrates how wealth is a cardinal determiner of wellness. Wealth affords those who attain it, certain societal benefits which include entree to high quality instruction, employment, lodging, child care, recreational chances, nutrition, quality medical attention, and safer and cleaner vicinities. In 1985, the U. We will write a custom essay sample on Wealth As Determinant Of Health Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now S. Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS ) constructed the Secretary ‘s Task Force Report on Black and Minority Health. The study was more typical than old studies, comparing four minority groups in the United States every bit good as the White population. In add-on, A it utilised aA statisticalA presentation of A † inordinate deceases † instead than the usual decease rates. This attack emphasized the fact that lives that were lost would non hold been lost had minority decease rates been the same as for the White population. These differences were subsequently coined as wellness disparities. As a consequence of the forceful nature of this study and the demand forA integrating of wellness promotion/disease bar schemes into these populations, the Office of Minority Health was established within HHS. Since the origin of the Office of Minority Health research has shown that disparities exist in the population on the footing of both wellness position and wellness attention bringing. These disparities are the consequence of assorted variables. The lexicon of Public Health defines wellness disparities as â€Å" differing degrees of wellness indexs like life anticipation, baby and perinatal mortality rates, that are observed among sections of a population, discernable in the size of the wellness spread between the highest and lowest section of the population, that frequently correlate with economic indexs, educational degree, employment and lodging conditions. † There are differing theoriesA orA premises usedA to explicate why wellness disparities plague certain populations. What both of these theories lack is the causalA mechanism by whichA the disparities occur. The historical context of attending to wellness disparities began with W.E.B. Du Bois. The being of wellness disparities in America was foremost documented in 1906 by W.E.B. Du Bois. Fueled by the averment that Negroes were an inferior race, Du Bois used nose count and disease informations from the late 1800s to document widespread disparities in bosom disease, infant deceases, maternal deceases, TB, and pox. Based on these observations, Du Bois asserted that such wellness disparities had nil to make with lower status and were strongly associated with multiple factors such as poorness, deficiency of instruction, and societal factors. A The taking wellness disparities include: entree to care, quality of wellness or wellness position, cardiovascular disease, malignant neoplastic disease, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, asthma, infant mortality, and mental wellness. Quality of attention in peculiar, has shown to hold significant spreads among populations. As it relates to disparities in quality of attention, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality â€Å" Quality wellness attention means making the right thing, at the right clip, in the right manner, for the right people-and holding the best possible consequences. † ( Q ) Quality wellness attention is effectual, safe, seasonably, patient centered, just, and efficient. In 1999, Congress commissioned the Institute of Medicine ( IOM ) to look into wellness and wellness attention among racial/ethnic minorities. The consequences of the survey conducted, entitled Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, demonstrated that minorities had p oorer wellness and were systematically acquiring lower-quality attention even when factors such as insurance position and income were n’t involved ( Smeadley, Stith, A ; Nelson 2003 ) . Despite paces towards extinguishing disparities, they still persist. Health attention disparities in quality of attention are found among several mark populations. These populations include: racial and cultural minorities, those of a certain socioeconomic position, occupants of rural countries, low-income groups, adult females, kids, the aged, and individuals with disablements. An copiousness of grounds demonstrates that as a consequence of several factors, a huge bulk of people in these mark population groups do non have high quality wellness attention. Perceived supplier favoritism has both direct and indirect effects on wellness attention use and wellness position. Surveies such as those conducted by Van Houtven et Al. and Blanchard and Lurie found that persons who perceived supplier favoritism significantly delayed wellness attention use ( 10, 15 ) . The biopsychosocial theoretical account explains how stereotyping or bias can bring on emphasis in those who experience it and as a consequence have a negative impact on wellness position. Patient-pro vider miscommunication has several branchings such as medical mistakes, deficient medical attention, and even decease. This type of miscommunication is the consequence of cultural and linguistic communication barriers. Bettering lingual and cultural competence can be accomplished by increasing the proportion of underrepresented clinicians in wellness systems and in medical instruction. Technology lacks in health care seem to besides bring on lacks in quality of attention provided to many of persons in the mark population. Suppliers in rural and destitute countries are holding troubles because they lack the wellness information engineering that their opposite numbers have in the urban and more flush countries. Differential entree to care can take to disparities in quality of wellness attention. Deriving entree to wellness attention is so an of import requirement to obtaining quality wellness attention. Minorities and low-income groups are less likely to hold wellness insurance and are more likely to hold public insurance. Payment rates for Medicaid are significantly lower than for Medicare, hence, minorities having Medicaid or that are uninsured receive attention in different scenes than in private insured or Medicare patient. Evidence suggests that entree to a regular and usual beginning of attention can greatly cut down wellness disparities. Transportation barriers, distance to clinics, or a deficiency of cognition about supplier locations have besides threatened entree to care. In 2003, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, as directed by the Healthcare Research and Quality Act of 1999, presented Congress with the first one-year National Healthcare Disparities Report and the National Healthcare Quality Report. Among the many findings as it relates to healthcare and healthcare quality disparities, the studies found that inequality in quality exists. You read "Wealth As Determinant Of Health Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" Key findings in the 2009 National Healthcare Quality Report found that attempts to cut down disparities have had an impact, nevertheless, disparities still exist. In the study, it was found an estimated cost $ 65-130 billion can be attributed to premature decease and lower wellness position among uninsured people. The study besides focuses on several scientifically supported nucleus quality measures that autumn into two classs, either process steps or result steps. When compared to White persons: Blacks received worse attention for 50 % and better attention for 15 % of nucleus steps ; Asians received worse attention for 30 % and better attention for 40 % of nucleus steps ; American Indians and Alaska Natives ( AI/ANs ) received worse attention for 45 % and better attention for 25 % of nucleus steps ; Hispanics received worse attention for 70 % and better attention for 20 % of nucleus steps. ( Q ) Associating to income disparities, hapless people received worse attention than high-income people for 75 % and better attention for 5 % of nucleus steps. ( Q ) When comparing the spread in disparities with findings from old old ages, 66 % of nucleus steps have non improved for Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics ; ensuing in a dead or increased spread. For inkinesss in peculiar, the spread seems to somewhat be shuting with an betterment in approximately 20 % of the disparities steps. For AI/ANs there is an betterment of approximately 40 % of disparities steps. However, when reexamining these findings, one may ask whether or non utilization patterns among these groups were taken into consideration besides. Extinguishing or cut downing healthcare disparities will necessitate statute law and action. Health policies and enterprises are made on three degrees of authorities, federal, province, and community-based. An illustration of a large-scale federal-level policy is REACH 2010. Reach 2010 is the CDC ‘s attempt to extinguish racial and cultural disparities. The CDC has awarded grants to 40 community-based alliances countrywide to implement a community-based plans and culturally-appropriate intercessions in the riddance of disparities. An illustration of a state-level policy is the Colorado Turning Point Initiative ( CTPI ) . The CTPI has set up informations aggregation plans to supply a standardised comparing of wellness indexs by race and ethnicity. Systems have besides been created to work towards its intended end of wellness disparities riddance. Such as the development of a province Office of Health Disparities and an betterment in linguistic communication aid for those who lac ks English proficiency. An illustration of a community-based disparities enterprise is the Florida Community-Based Participatory Research ( CBPR ) Initiative in Reducing and Eliminating Health Disparities. This inaugural supports disease intercession research in disparities utilizing community-based participatory research which is conducted by communities and research workers. There are several possible policy options for work outing the job of wellness attention disparities in quality of attention. As many persons in the mark populations are uninsured or underinsured, entree to wellness insurance by manner of policies such as the Healthcare Reform may hold a great impact on wellness disparities. For minorities and other mark groups, Healthcare Reform will take down costs for households, provide greater and more low-cost insurance picks, increase entree to care, advance primary attention, and command chronic disease. Another possible option is the Institute of Medicine ‘s Model of entree to wellness Services. A last possible policy option is acceptance of Health Information Technology ( HIT ) by manner of policies such as the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health ( HITECH ) ACT. The preferable policy option for work outing the job of wellness attention disparities in quality of attention is wide acceptance of HIT. This option should particularly be implemented in destitute and rural countries. The policy ‘s standard should include: acceptance of wellness IT, quality wellness services provided, an impact on wellness disparities, coverage of quality informations, and political feasibleness. The degree of engineering is sufficient to implement this policy option. Presently, there are several types of wellness IT technologies, which includes: electronic wellness records ( EHRs ) , E-health, electronic medical records ( EMRs ) , and computerized supplier order entry ( CPOE ) . Barriers to acceptance may show themselves in the signifier of: cost/lack of capital to put among suppliers, inability to incorporate the HIT with current systems, offline clip, lost of productiveness or income during passage, preparation, and hardware/software ascents. By implementing the HIT acceptance policy the spreads in quality of attention created by wellness disparities can be decreased. Broad acceptance of HIT will greatly even out the industry for all suppliers. Those suppliers in rural or destitute countries, such as Community Health Centers ( CHCs ) , in peculiar will hold the greatest impact on wellness disparities. â€Å" Given that CHCs sever about 14 per centum of the state ‘s uninsured people, 11 per centum of Medicaid enrollees, and 10 per centum of minorities, puting in spread outing CHC ‘s wellness IT capacity seems a valuable scheme to farther cut down wellness disparities for a significant figure of financially vulnerable patients † ( Shields 2007 ) . An of import characteristic of Health IT such as EHRs is the clinical supplier support interface that several systems contain. This characteristic provides recommendations on diagnostic and screening trials. â€Å" This Fosters just intervention for diverse pop ulations by extinguishing any possible racial or cultural prejudice form the wellness attention supplier that might impact clinical judgement † ( Custodio 2009 ) . The system will to boot help in the decrease of medicine mistakes and inauspicious drug effects with its medicine faculty. This faculty can urge dose, interaction information of several drugs, and generic options. The interoperability of wellness IT technologies such as EHRs will greatly increase functionality and as a consequence, the quality of attention provided. As many in the mark populations may be uninsured, lack the cognition of available resources, may populate far from a individual entity supplier, are hesitating to seek medical attention until something is incorrect, and miss a medical place, they tend to use hospital exigency suites more frequently than needed for medical attention. Health It such as EHRs will let suppliers from assorted clinics or infirmaries, entree a patient ‘s medical records, which will assist to cut down duplicate of services and medical mistakes. EHRs to boot, let for easier coverage of quality informations and public presentation monitoring. The information provided from the coverage will ease enterprises with a end of quality improvements. â€Å" An electronic wellness record that includes certification of demographics, including race and ethnicity, hazard facto appraisals, and preventative and chronic disease direction determination support, enables the clinician to pull off more efficaciously the complex wellness attention demands of our vulnerable populations † ( Custodio 2009 ) . Health IT is a valuable tool in the attempt of battling wellness disparities. The political feasibleness associated with the wide acceptance of wellness IT involves several involvement groups or stakeholders. Government bureaus such as the Commission to End Healthcare Disparities ( The Commission ) have taken an active function in this issue and will interest in the result of this policy alteration. The Commission is a federal undertaking force focuses on quality, physician leading, and systems as a agency to extinguishing disparities. Community organisations besides play a critical function in the issue as they are the 1s that have direct contact with those in the mark population. This policy alteration will let them to come in the community and be a liason between suppliers and the mark population. The mark population groups have the most at interest when it comes to the policy alteration seeing that they are the 1 ‘s straight affected by the disparities. Healthcare suppliers or health care organisations besides have a interest in the policy alteration since they will be buying the systems needed to implement the alteration. Employers and concerns such as insurance or wellness IT software/hardware companies will besides hold a interest in this policy alteration with both perchance benefiting from the alteration. The stakeholders in support of the policy alteration include: authorities bureaus, community organisations, mark population, and the HIT software/hardware companies. The group that would perchance oppose the alteration is the health care providers/healthcare organisations. Countrywide several little doctor groups that service the rural or impoverished countries have been loath to follow HIT. Hospitals have besides been hesitant in their acceptance because of the associated barriers. This policy would be supported by Democrats. Recently the two such policies aimed at HIT execution, the HITECH Act and the Healthcare Reform, have been passed under a democratic disposal. Economically, the execution of HIT comes with a brawny monetary value ticket. The Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) conducted a survey sing EHRs execution and associated cost. The CBO found that the cost of execution for primary practician offices ranged between $ 25,000-50,000 per doctor. ( perot ) Additionally, one-year operating, licensing, and care costs ranged between $ 3,000-9,000 per doctor. Execution costs for infirmaries averaged $ 14,500 per bed with one-year operating costs of $ 2,700 per bed. ( Perot ) The HITECH Act was enacted as portion of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 with an purpose of exciting the acceptance of wellness IT and the meaningful usage of HER systems. In the act, the authorities allocated $ 19 billion to set towards the execution of EHRs countrywide. The authorities will supply Medicare or Medicaid reimbursements and $ 44,000 discount as inducements to follow EHRs between 2011-2015. After 2015 any wellness attention organisations t hat have failed to follow a system and pattern their meaningful usage will confront punishments. As portion of the Healthcare Reform, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, contains several commissariats for acceptance of HIT and betterment in entree to care for the uninsured and underinsured. The overall jutting cost of the Healthcare Reform is $ 940 billion for the first decennary. The gross to implement the recommended policy alteration will come from revenue enhancements and supplier capital. Equally long as the policy is implemented right, the benefits of the policy alteration will be every bit accessible among the mark population. Harmonizing to the HITECH Act, by 2015, all health care suppliers are expected to implement wellness IT. In order to guarantee successful execution a mechanism should be used to supervise whether disparities increase with the wide acceptance of EHRs or other wellness IT. Fraud nevertheless, may happen in the signifier of a security breach of the HIT system. â€Å" Internal breaches of security continue to be the primary security concern identified by health care IM/IT executives † ( book ) . There is besides the potency for gross misdirection or waste of ARRA financess. In order to implement this policy efficaciously, a strategic execution program must be in topographic point. Collaboration among most if non all stakeholders must take topographic point, peculiarly between suppliers, authorities, and community-based organisations. Diversity and competency within the health care system and its work force must be improved. A quality-based reimbursement system for authorities operated insurances should be in topographic point. A undertaking force should be created in order to promote suppliers in rural countries to follow EHRs and other HIT. Health disparities should be included in the quality steps reported by suppliers to CMS in order to be eligible for meaningful usage inducement payments. State degree schemes should include: preparing or updating the province route map for HIT acceptance, set uping a province leading office, and set up chances for wellness IT preparation and instruction. Federal-level schemes occur in an ongoing three phase attempt. Stage one begins in 2011 and dressed ores on electronically entering wellness information in coded format. Stages 2 and 3 will be occur between 2013-2015 and expands on aims and steps, concentrating chiefly on the interoperability of HIT and it ‘s associate betterments in public wellness. How to cite Wealth As Determinant Of Health Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

The Aim of Man free essay sample

Finally, the definition on study of Ethics. This talks about the pure excellence of justice that involves the disagreements and agreements of uncertainty and certainty. Aristotle also talks about happiness and where a certain point can be overlooked and how arguments can be led from first principles. First principles came about In a variety of ways: by induction, direct perception, and habituation. The question then leads to where the sources of happiness come from but a result of virtue of learning or some kind of training.Because the virtue of learning and the some kind of training Is rewarded by blessing that Is generally shared but with the exception of the virtue being stunted. Aristotle concludes his essay by examining the most human element, the soul, and its relationship to virtue. Aristotle definition of happiness is, Happiness is a certain activity of the soul in accordance with perfect virtue. Aristotle point he is conveying throughout his essay is that the end and aim of all that we do is happiness. We will write a custom essay sample on The Aim of Man or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page His most prominent rhetorical technique that he uses is definition.He confirms the definition of happiness several times in his essay; which sakes his writing strategy even more substantial. In the section, Confirmation by Popular Beliefs, he Isolates happiness as the ultimate good. Aristotle uses the example of competitors at the Olympic Games. Aristotle says, In life.. . Those who carry off the finest prizes are those who manifest their excellence In their deeds (702). I agree In his assertion about the aim of man. Aristotle believes that happiness Is bullet on no secure foundation such as wealth.He uses the metaphor of a chameleon to illustrate this. We are all different and when you think of a chameleon, you first think f colors and personalities. In his example as a visual we can say that peoples happiness ranges so far and in-between. My response to the topic about the aim of man is that I agree that we all strive to achieve the very same goal as Aristotle points out; which is happiness. I think that his essay captures his definition of happiness well by repeating it several times throughout. This is effective to me because it is a repetitive way to enforce the topic.I agree with Aristotle especially that one does not know happiness until they can make the discernment. For the same reason he stated that a child can not be happy. I Like his definition to happiness because It Isnt Just characterized by good fortunes but It Is much deeper In that It derives from the soul with perfect righteousness. I can identify a strength of the essay is that he doesnt get off the topic often. He closes on the subject and goes back to the good that we are seeking. Another example where he does this was towards the end, he briefly talks about sleep is an inactivity of the soul.He clearly dismisses the subject by pointing out its irrelevance. This makes the essay easier to follow. Another strength that I notice was he used the chameleon as a metaphor about wealth that isnt a foundation to happiness because true happiness doesnt change its form. He points out several times that it is the virtuous activities that constitute happiness and vice versa. His essay to me was very methodical because he starts of with descriptive definitions and further breaks down happiness and identifies it in different ways. I can not identify any weaknesses in Aristotle essay.

Marginal cost curve Essays

Marginal cost curve Essays Marginal cost curve Essay Marginal cost curve Essay Marginal cost curve A curve that graphically represents the relation between the marginal cost incurred by a firm in the short-run product of a good or service and the quantity of output produced. Diagram: Marginal cost curve. * The MC curve is generally increasing. This is due to the decreasing  marginal productivity  of   labour. (Referred from econ econmodel. com downloaded on 14th May 2013). b. ) The Average Cost (AC) The average cost is the total cost divided by the number of units produced. Average cost curve – The graphical representation of average cost.Diagram: Average cost curve. The AC curve is U-shaped. This is because the ATC is made up of AVC, which is increasing, and AFC, which are decreasing. At low production quantities the decline in AFC dominates, but eventually the increasing AVC overwhelms the average costs. c. )The Average Fixed Cost (AFC) A cost that does not change with an increase or decrease in the amount of goods or services produced. Fixed costs are expenses that have to be paid by a company, independent of any business activity. It is one of the two components of the total cost of a good or service, along with variable cost.Average fixed cost curve A curve that graphically represents the relation between average fixed cost incurred by a firm in the short-run product of a good or service and the quantity produced. Diagram: Average Fixed Cost Curve: * AFC curve is always declining with quantity. This is because the same amount of fixed costs  is being averaged over a growing quantity of output, leading to a decline in the curve. * (Referred by web. pedia http:// www. amosweb. com downloaded on 14th May 2013). d). The Average Variable Cost (AVC) A cost that change with the change in volume of activity of an organization.Average variable cost  (AVC) is an  economics  term that refers to a firms  variable costs  (labour, electricity, etc. ) divided by the quantity (Q) of  output  produced. Variable cost s are those costs which vary with output. Diagram: Average variable cost curve: * The AVC is decreasing when it is above the MC curve and increasing when it is below the MC curve. This is because AVC is essentially the average of the marginal  costs of each unit of output. This will lead to an increasing or a U-shaped AVC curve. (Referred by http://en. wikipedia. org downloaded on 14th May).Answer 2. ) Relationship between the law of diminishing returns and the concept of economies of scale: * Law of diminishing returns. The tendency for a continuing application of effort or skill toward a particular project or goal to decline in effectiveness after a certain level of result has been achieved. The law of diminishing returns say that each time we do something to receive a benefit, the benefit will be less and less. (Reference – Michale W. Newell, Marina N, Grashina : The Project Management). * Features. The main features of this law are as follows:- . ) Only one variable inp ut is varied and all others are held constant. 2. ) No change in technique of production. 3. ) Variable proportions production functions. It means more of a variable factor can be used with the constant input of the fixed factors. 4. ) All units of variable factor are homogeneous. 5. ) Adequate or standard doses of variable factor are applied. * Explanation. The law of diminishing returns means that the productivity of available  declines as more is used in  short-run production, holding one or more inputs fixed.This law has a direct bearing on  market supply, thesupply price, and the  law of supply. If the productivity of a variable input declines, then more is needed to produce a given quantity of output, which means the cost of production increases, and a higher supply price is needed. The direct relation between price and quantity produced is the essence of the law of supply. Total Product Curve: The curve labelled TP in the top panel is the  total product curve, the t otal number of goods produced per hour for a given amount of labour.The increasing slope of the TP is attributable to the law of diminishing marginal returns. Marginal Product Curve: The Marginal curve indicates how the total production of goods changes when an extra worker is hired. The negatively-sloped portion of the MP curve is a direct attributable to the law of diminishing marginal returns. Average Product Curve: The  average product curve indicates the average number of goods produced by workers. The negatively-sloped portion of the AP curve is indirectly caused by the law of diminishing marginal returns.As marginal product declines, due to the law of diminishing marginal returns, it also causes a decrease in average product. * Arleen J. Hoag,  John H. Hoag(2006), Business and Economics, pg. 122 (London: World Scientific Publishing Co. Ltd. ) Returns to scale,  in economics is the quantitative change in output of a firm or industry resulting from a proportionate increas e in all inputs. If the quantity of output rises by a greater proportion- e. g. , if output increases by 2. 5 times in response to a doubling of all inputs- the  production process  is said to exhibit increasing returns to scale.Such economies of scale may occur because greater efficiency is obtained as the firm moves from small- to large-scale operations. Decreasing returns to scale occur if the  production  process becomes less efficient as production is expanded, as when a firm becomes too large to be managed effectively as a single unit. Brit britannica. com downloaded on 19th May 2013. According to Leibhfasky, †Returns to scale relates to the behaviour of total outputs as all inputs are varied and is a long run concept. * Explanation:In the long-run, output can be increased by increasing all factors in the same proportion or different proportions. Ordinarily, law of returns to scale refers to increase in output as a result of increase in all factors in the same p roportion. Such an increase in output is called Returns to Scale. * Aspects of Returns to Scale. As in the case of returns to a factor, there are three aspects of returns to scale, viz. (1) Increasing Returns to Scale, (2) Constant Returns to Scale, (3) Diminishing Returns to Scale. 1. Increasing return of scale:-Every firm tries to earn more and more profit by multiplying its output.Initially production increases at faster rate than increase in the input. It is evident from the following schedule that by doubling additional labour and capital, output increases from 16 units to 25 units. It shows that inputs increased by 100%, whereas capital increased by 150%. By doubling, production increased from 25 to 60 showing that input increased by 100% but the output increased by 140%. this shows the law of increasing return. Thus, any percentage increase in inputs is causing a greater percentage increase in output. Increasing returns to scale are thus operative.The main cause of its operat ion is that when scale of production is increased then due to indivisibility of factors such as labour, tools, implements and machines, division of labour and specialization and many types of economies are available. On account of these economies, proportional increase in returns is more than the proportionate increase in factors of production. All these economies are only internal economies as these are related to the scale of production of the concerned firm. 2. Constant Return to Scale:-If the scale of production is further increased, it is found that the both input and output increase at equal rates i. . , at the same percentage. Thus increasing the production, the increase in output remains constant i. e. , 100%. * This situation arises, when after reaching a certain level of production, economies of scale are counter-balanced by diseconomies of scale. In mathematical terminology, that production function which reflects constant returns to scale is called Linear and ‘Homo geneous Production Function’ or homogeneous function of First degree and is important in elucidating Euler’s Theorem in distribution.This function states that if labour and capital are increased in equal proportion then output will also increase in the same proportion. 3. Decreasing Return of Scale:-The increase in percentage of input is more than the output. In the following diagram, with every increase in input i. e. , 100%, output increases at lesser than 100%, showing the law of decreasing return of scale. S. A. Siddiqui (2006), Managerial Economics and Financial Analysis, pg. 107 (New Delhi: New Age International Publishers) Returns to scale are thus diminishing.The main cause of its operation is that diseconomies outweigh economies of scale, e. g. unwieldy business, indivisible factors becoming inefficient and less productive, difficulties of control and rigidities due to large managements, higher cost of skilled labour, price of raw material going up, high tran sport charges, etc. (Reference – TR Jain and OP Khanna, Business Economics p. 142). Answer3. ) (a) ‘In the real world there is no industry which conforms precisely to the economist’s model of perfect competition. This means that the model is of little practical value’.Perfect competition: (1) buyers  and  sellers  are too numerous and too small to have any  degree  of  individual  control over  prices, (2) All  buyers and sellers seek to maximize their  profit  (income), (3) buyers and  seller  can freely  enter  or leave the  market, (4) all buyers and sellers have  access  to  information  regarding  availability, prices, and  quality  of  goods  being traded, and (5) All goods of a particular nature are  homogeneous, hence substitutable for one another. Also called  perfect market  or  pure competition. (Reference:   businessdictionary. om downloaded on 19th May 2013. ) Diagram for perfect com petition: (Referred by economicshelp. org downloaded on 19th May 2013). A perfect competition is unrealistic as many of its conditions are quite difficult to fulfil. Especially no barriers to entry, is very rare as even start up cost can act as a significant barrier. While other conditions like perfect information and identical products are though possible not common. Apart from these there are many other conditions like no transportation cost which is again highly rare.The example of perfect competition would be in agriculture. Identical products (fruits, vegetables, etc. ), and not really need any advertising. There are no barriers to enter. It is the most realistic example, in reality perfect competition does not exist. (Reference: khan academy). (b). Short Run Price and Output for the Competitive Industry and Firm: 1. Short Run Equilibrium of the Firm A firm is in equilibrium in the short run when it has no tendency to enlarge or contract its productivity and needs to earn maxi mum profit or to incur minimum losses.The short run is a period of time in which the firm can vary its productivity by changing the erratic factors of production. The number of firms in the industry is fixed since neither the existing firms can leave nor new firms can enter it. 2. Short Run Equilibrium of the Industry An industry is in equilibrium in the short run when its total output remains steady there being no propensity to enlarge or contract its productivity. If all firms are in equilibrium the industry is also in equilibrium. For full equilibrium of the industry in the short run all firms must be earning normal profits.But full equilibrium of the industry is by sheer accident for the reason that in the short rum some firms may be earning super normal profits and some losses. Even then the industry is in short run equilibrium when its quantity demanded and quantity supplied is equal at the price which clears the market. Roger A. Arnold,(2005,08) Economics, 8th ed. (USA: Thoms on Learning, Inc. 2008) In the short run the equilibrium market price is determined by the interaction between market demand and market supply. In the diagram shown above, price P1 is the market-clearing price and this price is then taken by each of the firms.Because the market price is constant for each unit sold, the AR curve also becomes the Marginal Revenue curve (MR). A firm maximises profits when marginal revenue = marginal cost. In the diagram above, the profit-maximising output is Q1. The firm sells Q1 at price P1. The area shaded is the economic (supernormal profit) made in the short run because the ruling market price P1 is greater than average total cost. Not all firms make supernormal profits in the short run. Their profits depend on the position of their short run cost curves. Some firms may be xperiencing sub-normal profits because their average total costs exceed the current market price. Other firms may be making normal profits where total revenue equals total cost ( i. e. they are at the break-even output). In the diagram below, the firm shown has high short run costs such that the ruling market price is below the average total cost curve. At the profit maximising level of output, the firm is making an economic loss (or sub-normal profits) The Effects of a change in Market Demand In the diagram below there has been an increase in market demand (ceteris paribus).This causes an increase in market price and quantity traded. The firms average revenue curve shifts up to AR2 (=MR2) and the profit maximising output expands to Q2. Notice that the MC curve is the firms supply curve. Higher prices cause an expansion along the supply curve. Following the increase in demand, total profits have increased. An inward shift in market demand would have the opposite effect. Think also about the effect of a change in market supply perhaps arising from a cost-reducing technological innovation available to all firms in a competitive market. Reference: tutor tutor 2u. net downloaded 19th May 2013. (c) The long-run perfectly competitive equilibrium for the firm:-  ¦ Economic profits bring entry by new firms. The industry supply curve shifts rightward and reduces the market price. The fall in price reduces economic profit and decreases the incentive to enter the industry. New firms enter until it is no longer possible to earn an economic profit.  ¦ Economic losses lead to exit by existing firms, which shifts the industry supply curve leftward. The price rises, and the higher price reduces economic losses.Firms exit until no firms incur an economic loss. Firms change their plant size if it increases their profits. D=P= MR = AR - the firm maximizes its profits. P = minimum short-run average cost (SRAC) The firm’s economic profit is zero. P = minimum (LRAC) - the firm’s plant size cannot be changed in order to increase its profits. Frank Machovec, (2003), Perfect Competition and Transformation of Economics, (New York: Taylor;am p; Francis e-Library, 2003). Answer 4. ) MonopolyA pure monopoly is a single supplier in a market.For the purposes of regulation,  monopoly power  exists when a single firm controls 25% or more of a particular market * Less Efficient:- * ABCPM :-Supernormal Profit (AR-AC) Q * Shaded portion:- Deadweight welfare loss (combined loss of producer and consumer surplus) compared to competitive market * Higher Prices:-Higher Price and Lower Output than under Perfect Competition. This leads to a decline in consumer surplus and a deadweight welfare loss * Allocative Inefficiency. A monopoly is allocative inefficient because in monopoly the price is greater than MC.P ;gt; MC. * Productive Inefficiency A monopoly is productively inefficient because it is not the lowest point on the AC curve. * X Inefficiency. It is argued that a monopoly has less incentive to cut costs because it doesnt face competition from other firms. Therefore the AC curve is higher than it should be. * Supernormal P rofit. Leads to an unequal distribution of income. * Higher Prices to Suppliers   A monopoly may use its market power and pay lower prices to its suppliers. E. g. Supermarkets have been criticised for paying low prices to farmers. Diseconomies of Scale   It is possible that if a monopoly gets too big it may experience diseconomies of scale. higher average costs because it gets too big   * Charge higher prices to suppliers. Monopolies may use their supernormal profits to charge higher prices to suppliers. Economic organisation(2013) Website:- economicshelp. org/microessays/markets/monopoly. html 2More Efficient:- * Research and Development. Monopolies can make supernormal profit; this can be used to fund high cost capital investment spending. Successful esearch can be used for improved products and lower costs in the long term.. * Economies of scale. Increased output will lead to a decrease in average costs of production. These can be passed on to consumers in the form of lowe r prices. If a monopoly produces at output Q1, average costs (AC 1) are much lower than if a competitive market had firms producing at Q2 (AC 2). * Monopolies Successful Firms. A firm may become a monopoly through being efficient and dynamic. A monopoly is thus an efficient. For example Google has gained monopoly power through being regarded as best firm for search engines.Tejvan R. Pettinger, Economic Dictionary,(UK: Economics Blog, 2013)Retrieved from:- economicshelp. org/microessays/markets/advantages-monopoly. html Answer 5. ) Economic governance in Australia has undergone radical changes since the 1970s. Many of these changes are associated with the market-oriented policies collectively referred to as ‘microeconomic reform’. Broadly speaking, microeconomic reform can be defined as government policies or initiatives aimed at improving the performance and/or the efficiency of industries or sectors in the economy (Forsyth 1992).Remarkably, such a quest for efficiency was not a major policy focus for much of the twentieth century in Australia. However, since the 1970s, growing pressure on the economy, together with evidence of widespread inefficiency, saw microeconomic reform become a key aspect of economic policy in Australia. The era of microeconomic reform in Australia may be divided into three main phases, with a degree of overlap. In the first, deregulatory, phase, the main focus was on rationalising public intervention in private sector markets, with the object of ‘getting prices right’.In the second phase, referred to here as the ‘privatisation’ phase, attention shifted to market-oriented reforms of the public sector, including corporatisation and competitive contracting as well as privatisation. In the third ‘competitive regulation’ phase, the idea of deregulation was replaced by regulation designed to produce, or simulate, competitive market outcomes (see also Parker this volume). The central argum ent of the chapter is that each of these phases was associated with the prominence of particular institutions and with specific tendencies in economic governance. In particular, whereas he governance models associated with the privatisation phase, the private corporation was taken as the ideal model of public sector governance. By contrast, in the competitive regulation phase, governments have relied on increasingly intrusive systems of regulation to control both public and privately-owned monopolies Privatisation often appears to be driven by political expediency and ideology rather than by economic theory. This dislocation between theory and practice led Kay and Thompson (1986) to declare privatisation in the United Kingdom a ‘policy in search of a rationale’.In fact, there has been significant economic research on optimal ownership in the past 20 years, including the comparison between government and private ownership. This work provides the basis for understanding b oth the success and failure of privatisation. Three Causes of Privatisation: Performance in privatisation must be judged on a case-by-case basis. Three key privatisations in Australia have been the Commonwealth Bank, the partial privatisation of Telstra and the privatisation of the Victorian electricity system. How do these privatisations ‘stack up’ against the theory? 1. The Commonwealth BankIn the 1940s and 1950s the Commonwealth Bank was the central banker for Australia. The Reserve Bank of Australia took over this role in 1959, placing the Commonwealth Bank in a similar position to a number of highly regulated private banks. Deregulation of the Australian banking sector in the 1980s meant that there was little if any special role for State-owned commercial banks, and the Commonwealth bank was privatised in three tranches during the 1990s. The first sale of 30 per cent of the Bank in 1991 was the first large privatisation by share float in Australia and it set the be nchmark for future sales, such as the sale of GIO and Qantas.Overall, it is likely that the Government sold the Commonwealth at a discount to its true market value (Harris and Lye 2001). But in terms of 17economic welfare it seems clear that the sale of the Commonwealth Bank made perfect sense. The bank operated in active competition with private banks and its functions were essentially identical to those private competitors. In fact, given the tendency for politicians to seek short-term electoral kudos by railing against the banking system, it is likely that continued government ownership of the Commonwealth Bank would have opened it up to political exploitation in the 1990s.In economic terms, the privatisation of the Commonwealth Bank was clearly sensible policy. 2 Telstra Telstra was formed in 1992 by the merger of Telecom Australia and the Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (OTC). Both of these were fully owned by the Commonwealth Government. Telecom Australia controlled Au stralia’s domestic telephone network while OTC controlled overseas telecommunications. In the late 1990s, 49. 9 per cent of Telstra was sold by the Government in two tranches. This partial privatisation is the largest by value in Australia, reaping over $30 billion for the Commonwealth. 1At first blush, the sale of Telstra might appear similar to the sale of the Commonwealth Bank. After deregulation in July 1997, Telstra competed vigorously with privately-owned carriers. Since then, Telstra has lost market share in both domestic long-distance calls and overseas calls. Telstra also currently faces vigorous competition in mobile telephony. 18Unlike banking, however, telecommunications involves a key natural monopoly element, the customer access network (CAN) that provides the ‘last link’ in the telephone network between a switch and a customer’s phone.Telstra owns the CAN and its private competitors rely on Telstra providing them access to the CAN in order t o compete. Telstra could eliminate its private competitors outside the CBD areas of Australia if it refused them the right to either originate or terminate calls using the CAN. Telstra faces a wide range of regulations, including retail price controls, procedures for setting wholesale access prices and rules to prevent any anticompetitive behaviour. This regulation has been modified over the past five years and in 2001 the Productivity Commission recommended further reform of Telstra’s regulatory regime (Commonwealth of Australia 2001).In 2002 the Federal Government investigated and rejected reforming Telstra by accounting separation to ‘isolate’ the CAN. The partial privatisation of Telstra failed to adequately recognise the source of market failure- the natural monopoly CAN. Neither did it establish appropriate procedures to deal with this problem. One solution might have been vertical separation of the CAN from the rest of Telstra. The CAN could have remained in public ownership with open access while the remainder of Telstra could have competed with other telecommunications companies. Alternatively, the management of the CAN could have changed.For example, the CAN could be 19jointly owned by a number of licensed carriers. These carriers would have a mutual obligation to maintain the CAN but otherwise would compete. The sharing of infrastructure facilities between competing firms sometimes occurs with gas pipelines. Discontent with the partial privatisation has made it politically difficult to sell the remainder of Telstra. In the absence of a restructured approach to the CAN, further privatisation will simply mean ongoing costly regulation. Such regulation will continue into the future as the CAN grows in importance for data rather than voice telecommunications traffic. The Victorian electricity system The creation of a National Electricity Market (NEM) was a key part of the Hilmer reforms. This market involves generators competing to s ell power into a grid connecting South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. The proposed construction of BassLink will connect Tasmania to the NEM. Privatisation is not required under the NEM but private generators are able to compete with government-owned facilities. The Kennett Government in Victoria decided to sell the State’s electricity assets to the private sector.Privatisation was preceded by vertical and horizontal restructuring, including the creation of five distribution/retail companies, five competing generation businesses and a single transmission business. The total proceeds of the privatisations in the mid-201990s were approximately $22. 5 billion; second only to Telstra in terms of total revenue raised. 22By separating competitive generation from natural monopoly elements, like transmission and distribution, the Victorian electricity privatisations avoided the issues of access and competitive abuse that have dogged telecommunications.Further, s ome measures of performance, such as the reliability of the distribution, have significantly improved. 23 However, both transmission and distribution have limited scope for competition and these prices need ongoing regulation. As noted earlier, this regulation has been contentious. Political interference still occurs, as both generation prices are capped under the NEM and maximum prices for power to households are set. For example, in 2001 the Victorian Government rejected recommended increases in household power prices, leading to comparisons with the Californian electricity crisis and oncerns over the long-term viability of distributors/retailers if they are unable to pass on increased wholesale electricity prices to customers. 24 The shift to a national market has also required modifications, for example, in the face of claims of price rigging by generators. 25 Further, it is not clear that long-term competition between State-owned electricity systems and private systems is viabl e. While generation and retailing can be open to competition, a preferred approach might have been to retain public ownership of transmission and distribution lines. 1Rather than heavy-handed profit-based regulation, the ongoing operation and maintenance of these facilities might have been handled through private contractors, with the relevant governments setting transmission and distribution charges to cover cost. At the same time, electricity experience shows that privatisation is not a cure for short-term political interference in key infrastructure assets. (b). The privatisation process has slowed in Australia. But this is to be expected. Most of the obvious privatisations have been completed and both politicians and bureaucrats are realising the limitations of a naive approach to privatisation.Public pressure against privatisation has grown. Despite the Federal Government’s preference for privatising the remainder of Telstra, such a policy is currently unpalatable to the electorate. Similarly, in New South Wales attempts by senior politicians to push for electricity privatisation have been thwarted by public opposition. While privatisation in Australia is not dead, it is ‘on the nose’. The current public backlash against privatisation is a direct consequence of its naive application. Some privatisations have not worked.While these sales have raised short-term revenue for the government, they have not resulted in improved social welfare because they have not carefully considered any sources of market failure and dealt appropriately with these failures. 22At the same time, the underlying motivations for privatisation remain relevant. Government still feels the need to reduce fiscal pressures and public–private partnerships (PPP), where the government ties the private development of infrastructure assets to long-term government funding, represents a new face of privatisation.Thus privatisation continues, but under another name. Aus tralia requires an integrated approach to privatisation and regulation. Private ownership with regulation is simply one of a number of options for dealing with market problems and public policy needs to recognise the costs and benefits of alternative options. This means that some previous privatisations might need to be radically re-evaluated. For example, it might be desirable to restructure Telstra with current private shareholders owning the potentially competitive assets, while the government retains the CAN.It also means that some privatisations should proceed, such as the sale of the NSW electricity generation facilities, while some other assets, such as the Victorian electricity transmission system, might better be returned to government ownership. Finally, it means that governments should not be allowed to use privatisation as an expedient source of funds. An alternation to government accounting is required so that privatisation revenues cannot be used to prop up a governmen t budget. While this reform has already started, with analysts focusing on ‘underlying’ deficit figures that remove privatisation revenues, it needs to be formalised.Privatisation and regulation are all about incentives- and the first incentives that need to be fixed are those facing our politicians.

How to Teach English Pronunciation Skills

How to Teach English Pronunciation Skills Teaching English pronunciation is a challenging task with different objectives at each level. This guide on how to teach pronunciation provides a short overview of the main issues to be addressed at each level, as well as pointing to resources on the site, such as lesson plans and activities, that you can use in class to help your students improve their English pronunciation skills. Following each level are a few suggestions for level appropriate activities. Finally, the best way to help students improve their pronunciation skills is to encourage them to speak English as much as they possibly can. Introduce the idea that even when doing homework students should be reading aloud. Learning to pronounce English well takes muscle coordination, and that means practice - not just mental activity!   Beginning Level English Learners Key Points: Syllable Stress - students need to  understand that multisyllabic words require syllable stress. Point out common syllable stress patterns.Voiced and Voiceless Consonants - Teach the difference between voiced and voiceless consonants. Have students touch their throats to note the difference between z and s and f and v to demonstrate these differences.Silent Letters - Point out examples of words with silent letters such as the b in comb, -ed endings in the past for regular verbs.Silent final E - Teach the influence of the final silent e generally making the vowel long. Make sure to point out that there are many exceptions to this rule (drive vs. live). Discussion: At the beginning level, English learners need to focus on the basics of pronunciation. In general, the use of rote learning is best for this level. For example, the use of grammar chants is a great way to help students pick up pronunciation skills through repetition. Teaching the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is too challenging at this point as learners are already overwhelmed with the challenges of learning a language. Learning another alphabet for pronunciation is beyond the capability of most beginning level English learners. Certain patterns such as silent letters in English and the pronunciation of -ed in the simple past is a good starting point for future pronunciation drills. Students should also learn the difference between voiced and voiceless consonants. Beginning Level Pronunciation Activities Slap That Word! - Fun game for learners asking them to associate words that are posted on the wall of the classroom. This exercise will reinforce pronunciation patterns during a fun, competitive activityRead and Rhyme - Rhyming game asking students to come up with words that rhyme with others presented on cards. Intermediate Level English Learners Key Points: Use of Minimal Pairs - Understanding the small differences in pronunciation between similar words is a great way to help students notice these differences.Word Stress Patterns  - Help students improve their pronunciation by focusing on short sentences using standard word stress patterns.  Introduce Stress and Intonation - One of the best ways to help students is to focus their attention on the music of English through the use of stress and intonation.   Discussion: At this point, English learners will feel comfortable with relatively simple pronunciation patterns in English. Moving on to exercises using minimal pairs will help learners further refine their pronunciation of individual phonemes. Intermediate level learners should become aware of common word stress patterns, as well as sentence stress types. At this point, students can also begin becoming familiar with the IPA. Intermediate Level Pronunciation Activities IPA Symbol Card Game - This card game helps students learn phonetic symbols. Cards are included on the site that you can print out and use in class.Tongue Twisters - Classic English tongue twisters to help students focus on some of the more challenging phonemes. Advanced Level English Learners Key Points​: Refine Understanding of Stress and Intonation - Further students understanding of stress and intonation by changing up particular words stress to change meaning.Use of Register and Function  - Introduce the idea of changing through pronunciation depending on how formal or informal the situation is.   Improving pronunciation through a focus on stress and intonation is one of the best ways to improve higher intermediate to advanced level English learners. At this level, students have a good grasp on the basics of each phoneme through the use of exercises such as minimal pairs, and individual syllable stress. However, English learners at this level often focus too much on the correct pronunciation of each word, rather than on the music of each sentence. To introduce the concept of stress and intonation and the role it plays in understanding, the students first need to understand the role of content and function words. Use this lesson on practicing stress and intonation to help. Next, students should learn how to use sound scripting - a way of marking up texts to help prepare for reading aloud. Finally, advanced level students should be capable of changing meaning through word stresses within sentences to bring out contextual meaning through pronunciation. Advanced Level Pronunciation Activities IPA Transcription Lesson - Lesson focusing on continuing students familiarity with the IPA in order to focus on the issue of connected speech in English.Pronunciation Activities  from FluentU  - Make pronunciation fun with these clever ideas.

Era of Totalitarianism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Era of Totalitarianism - Essay Example All these totalitarian regimes consequently took monumental toll, with millions of people perishing and suffering under the insistence of the political party in power to regulate and dictate all facets of economic, social and even spiritual aspects of human existence. The mobilizing power of the totalitarian regimes, their ability to foster mass movements was based on extreme interpretations of the ideologies of Marx and Nietzsche. Both Marx and Nietzsche lived during a time in the 19th century when science was on the rise and religion was on a decline as the guidepost in matters of human progress and direction. The inward aspects of human existence, the spiritual aspects were seemingly irrelevant with the unprecedented economic progress as can be seen in the West, that was albeit accompanied by the marginalization of certain sectors of society (the toiling, labor classes of Marx) as well as corruption and decadence (the nihilism, the weaknesses engendered by the Christian religion1) as observed by Nietzsche. Both philosophers stressed the ability of mankind to change their reality, Marx in his deterministic belief that the workers rise to power is inevitable and in Nietzsche's trumpeting of the morality of the master over the slave. The historical determinism of Marx and the infinite call to power of the individual with no boundaries in Nietzsche's ideas were potent brews that combined to foster the totalitar ian regimes of the 20th century. Marx, whose ideas led to left-wing totalitarianism turned Hegel's dialectics on its head, converting the latter's predominance of ideas over reality to that of the material determining ideas of reality. For Marx, man is determined by his material or economic needs, forming superstructure for which social, moral and spiritual norms are erected. If mankind could take control of his economic life, and revolutionize it so that the workers will own the fruits of their labor, then all the other aspects of life could be wiped out clean, with oppressive relations disappearing and the mankind living in communal bliss. Far from blissful, the followers of Marx took cue on the deterministic flavor of his ideology from which the communist party became rather an organ of repression of dissent and of oppression in the dogmatic insistence on the interpretation of what constitutes and what will constitute reality. Nietzsche's ideas on the will to power and master morality on the other hand, were the Nazis' ticket to avenge Germany's humiliation after World War I. Morally relativistic, Nietzsche on the one hand when seem in a good light enjoins man to freedom, the creation of what one sees as fit for his life, without the encumbrances of societal traditions. But if used by a group or party out for political power, it had the most fantastic consequences where a nation could be made to believe that one's race is superior and consequently others are inferior - with the resulting Holocaust that killed millions of Jews in the altar of Aryanism.